Flat Earth: The World in Ancient Minds #2

Portrait of Pythagoras
Artist: André Thévet, 1584, Es vrais portraits et vies des hommes illustres grecz, latins et payens, Original painting housed at: Gallica (Bibliothèque nationale de France)

The Earth in Ancient Minds

In the ancient civilizations of humanity, the shape of the Earth was always a subject of curiosity. For much of antiquity, people were completely unaware of the natural sciences. When they began to acquire knowledge in this area, widespread views emerged that sought to understand natural phenomena within religious and mythological contexts. People’s ideas about the shape of the Earth were usually shaped by explanations rooted in religious beliefs. Since they had not yet discovered the entire world, people perceived existence as limited to the world they inhabited. Therefore, they believed that both themselves and the Earth were directly connected to God. This led to variations in flat-Earth views, which differed from region to region according to dominant religious beliefs.

The Earth in Ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egypt, people’s ideas about the Earth were influenced by their beliefs in the gods Shu, Geb, Nun, and Nut. They thought the universe was a flat surface. This flat surface had emerged from Nun, the primeval waters of infinity. They believed the Earth was an island, personified as the god Geb (the earth god). Above him was Nut, the goddess forming the sky in an arched position. Nut’s body was filled with stars and stretched across Geb. Shu (the god of air) stood between Nut and Geb, separating the sky from the earth. The sun god Ra was believed to journey daily across Nut’s body—by day across the sky, and by night through the underworld.
In summary, the Egyptians thought that the gods of earth, water, and air were the physical building blocks of the universe. They believed not only the Earth, but the entire cosmos, was flat, with the Earth being nothing more than an island within it.

The Earth in Ancient Greece

Unlike other ancient civilizations, the Greeks showed great interest in the natural sciences, including astronomy. As a result, philosophers of the time developed various ideas about the Earth. At the same time, mythological narratives also contained views on the world.
In mythology, the Earth (Gaia) was personified as a goddess—the source of all life and nature. The cosmos was initially within Khaos (limitless void). Gaia (Earth) emerged from this chaos, upon which the other elements settled. In Greek cosmogonies (such as Hesiod’s Theogony), the Earth was conceived as a vast, fixed surface. In myths, the Earth was sometimes imagined as a flat disk surrounded by Oceanus, depicted as a river encircling the world. The sky was imagined as a dome rising above Gaia, sometimes held up by gods—for example, the myth of Atlas carrying the sky.

Thales’ view of the Earth resembled this. According to him, the Earth was like a flat disk floating on water. Water was the fundamental element of everything. The Earth rested on an infinite body of water, and it did not sink because of its density.

Anaximander, a student of Thales, argued that the Earth was cylindrical in shape, suspended in the void, supported by nothing. People lived on the flat upper surface of this cylinder.

Anaximenes, another philosopher, believed the Earth was flat and surrounded by air. He also considered the Earth to be a flat surface, but emphasized “air” as its supporting element.

In the 6th–5th centuries BCE, Pythagoras and his followers spread the idea that the Earth was spherical. To them, the sphere was the most perfect geometric form in the universe, so the Earth must also be a sphere.

Plato described the Earth as a perfect sphere. In his work Timaeus, he argued that when God created the world, He chose the most perfect shape possible—the sphere.

Aristotle also maintained that the Earth was spherical, supporting this claim with observations: during lunar eclipses, the Earth’s shadow was always round; stars visible in the sky changed depending on whether one traveled north or south; and practical observations on Earth all pointed to a spherical shape.

Parmenides, on the other hand, held that the cosmos and the Earth were a single, unchanging whole. Although he did not directly describe the Earth’s shape, his cosmology aligned with the concept of a sphere.

The Earth in Aztec Beliefs

According to the Aztecs, the Earth was part of the cosmos and not an independent entity. They viewed the Earth as a plane within a multilayered universe. The Earth (Tlalticpac) was imagined as a flat surface divided into four directions: north, south, east, and west. These directions had both cosmic and religious significance. The Earth was shaped around four cardinal points and a center. The center was seen as the axis mundi—the world axis—where gods descended from the sky to the Earth and where passages opened to the underworld.

Aztec cosmology held that the world had existed in five successive ages (or “sun cycles”). The first four worlds were each destroyed by a different catastrophe. After these destructions, the Aztecs referred to their own era as the “Fifth Sun.” They believed the Fifth Sun, too, was destined for destruction. To preserve cosmic order, they believed they had to continually offer sacrifices to the gods—ensuring the continuation of the sun’s journey and the balance of the world.

For the Aztecs, the Earth and cosmos were living beings. Earth (Tlaltecuhtli), water (Chalchiuhtlicue), fire (Xiuhtecuhtli), and air (Ehecatl) were personified as gods. These elements were considered both physical and sacred. The Earth was not just stone and soil but a living sacred organism. It lay between the underworld and the sky. The universe was divided into three main realms: the heavens (13 layered heavens), the Earth (the flat surface), and the underworld (Mictlan, with 9 levels).
In short, the Aztecs saw the Earth as a flat plane surrounded by the ocean.

The Earth in Ancient China

In Ancient China, the Earth (Di, 地) was thought to be a flat surface. For the Chinese, the Earth formed a whole together with the sky (Tian, 天). The sky was imagined as a dome, like a vast bell covering the Earth. The Earth was fixed and motionless, while the sky was in motion. The cosmos was composed of two main elements: “Heaven” and “Earth.” A geocentric worldview dominated. The Chinese lands were seen as the “center of the world.” The Earth was a flat plane divided into four cardinal directions and a center, which were connected to natural forces and cosmic order. The concept of the Five Elements (Wu Xing: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water) explained the functioning of the universe and the Earth. For the Chinese, the Earth was not just a physical surface but part of a living cosmic organism. In Ancient China, the Earth was flat and stable, with the arched dome of the sky above it, all functioning in a harmonious cosmic system.

The Earth in Inca Beliefs

In Inca civilization, the Earth (Kay Pacha) was accepted as a flat, horizontal plane. The Earth was organized through a universal network of ceque and sacred lines (ley lines) that connected holy sites (huacas). Both the cosmos and the Earth were considered alive and sacred. Great reverence was given to Mother Earth (Pachamama). Like many ancient civilizations, the Incas placed great importance on the four directions (north, south, east, west) and divided the world accordingly. They believed in a sacred axis (axis mundi) at the center of the universe, often represented by sacred mountains (apus) or holy cities (such as Cusco). The Incas divided the cosmos into three realms: Hanan Pacha (the upper world/sky), Kay Pacha (the present world/the realm we live in), and Ukhu Pacha (the underworld).

The Earth in Maya Beliefs

For the Maya, the Earth was imagined as a horizontal plane with four directions. This plane was thought to rest on a surface resembling the back of a turtle or crocodile. At the center of Maya cosmology stood the “world tree” (wacah chan or yaxche), the axis of the universe.

The Maya divided the cosmos into three main layers: the heavens (13 levels), the Earth (the world we inhabit), and the underworld (Xibalba, with 9 levels). These three realms were connected by the world tree. Its roots extended into the underworld, its trunk passed through the earthly plane, and its branches reached into the heavens.

For the Maya, the four cardinal directions were sacred and associated with colors: north (white), south (yellow), east (red), and west (black). There was also a center (green). Each direction was linked with specific gods, symbols, and natural forces.

For the Maya, the Earth and nature were living beings. Mountains, rivers, lakes, and trees contained sacred spirits. Maize held a central role in Maya cosmology, and they believed that humans were created from maize.

In Maya worldview, time was perceived cyclically. Their complex calendar systems were used to track and predict cosmic cycles. The past and future were in constant interaction with the present. Ancestors and gods were seen as active forces in the contemporary world.

In summary, the Maya saw the Earth as a four-cornered horizontal plane, often thought to rest on the back of a turtle or crocodile. At its center stood the sacred “world tree,” which connected the three layers of the cosmos—the heavens, the Earth, and the underworld.

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