Illuminati: First Lights #3

Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria
Artist: Anna Dorothea Therbusch (1721–1782), Original painting housed at at Schloss Schleissheim (Schleissheim Palace) in Oberschleißheim, Munich, Germany.

Relations Between the Illuminati and Other Secret Societies

The Jesuits, who had been influential in the region for centuries, were deeply disturbed by the situation. Particularly France, Spain, Portugal, and Naples—strong Catholic monarchies—were displeased with the Jesuits’ political influence. By pressuring Pope Clement XIV, they managed to have the order banned in Catholic countries through the papal bull Dominus ac Redemptor on July 21, 1773. However, Pope Pius VII, who later took office, sought to restore the Jesuits’ power. Although the ban temporarily weakened them, the Jesuits regained strength, controlling both education and missionary activities, and became powerful enough to challenge local authorities in Bavaria. Due to their views being in complete opposition to Adam Weishaupt and the society he had founded, they personally wrote to the Pope, describing Adam as “an enemy of religion, one who encourages people toward sin and drives them away from God.” This demonstrated the Jesuits’ open hostility toward the Illuminati.

The Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross was one of the esoteric societies influential in 18th-century Germany. Because of its opposition to the Catholic Church, it initially appeared to share some intellectual parallels with the Illuminati. However, the Rosicrucians had essentially developed within Protestant regions and were distinguished by their devotion to mystical Christianity. The Illuminati, on the other hand, entirely rejected religious dogma and had a secular character. The Golden and Rosy Cross emerged within Freemasonry but diverged from it through its emphasis on alchemy, symbolism, and mystical traditions. The Rosicrucians were quite influential among the nobility and within Masonic lodges. Over time, differences between the two societies deepened: the Rosicrucians accused the Illuminati of “hostility toward God” and “moral corruption,” while the Illuminati criticized the Rosicrucians as “spreading superstition” and “ensnaring people with mystical chains.” This positioned the two groups as rivals—even enemies.

In 18th-century Germany, Freemasonry was on the rise both intellectually and politically. The fact that King Frederick II of Prussia was a Freemason granted the order both prestige and legitimacy. The growth of Freemasonry was greatly influenced by the combination of Enlightenment ideas with esoteric and mystical approaches. However, these two tendencies eventually led to ideological divisions. Mystical currents such as the Golden and Rosy Cross and radical Enlightenment groups like the Illuminati entered into competition within Freemasonry. This rivalry, especially in the 1780s, resulted in growing tensions and a split among Rosicrucians, traditional Freemasons, and the Illuminati.

Shifting Power in Bavaria

In 1777, Elector Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria died childless, and the nearest male heir, Karl Theodor, who had been Elector of the Palatinate since 1742, also assumed rule over Bavaria. However, this union displeased certain powers. Emperor Joseph II of Austria (head of the Holy Roman Empire) sought to annex parts of Bavaria. Yet the Elector of Saxony, and especially King Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great), opposed Austria’s expansion. Consequently, in 1778 Prussia and Saxony declared war on Austria. The war was short-lived and not particularly bloody; historians sometimes call it the “Kartoffelkrieg” (Potato War), since soldiers spent more time searching for potatoes than fighting. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen in 1779. Austria annexed the small Bavarian territory of Innviertel, while Karl Theodor retained control of Bavaria. Prussia and Saxony successfully prevented further Austrian expansion. This crisis revealed how the small principalities of Germany were bargaining chips between major powers such as Prussia and Austria. Moreover, Karl Theodor—having lost territory—fell out of favor with both the Bavarian people and the local elites. This atmosphere paved the way for the Illuminati and Enlightenment movements to grow stronger.

The Early Years of the Illuminati

One of the influential figures in the Illuminati’s founding was Franz Xaver von Zwackh, a student and friend of Weishaupt. The correspondence between Weishaupt and Zwackh clearly shows each step of the society’s organizational development. The order was given a single purpose: the collection and secret teaching of scientific knowledge. In other words, the order was to be a secret school of wisdom, in which its founder would accept only young academics and peacefully teach them the truths that had been excluded from public platforms due to folly and clerical self-interest.

Weishaupt shared this plan with his most trusted friends at the university: von Massenhausen, a member of the Bavarian Court Finance Council; von Merz, secretary of the Imperial and Royal Embassy in Copenhagen; and Hohenaicher, counselor of the court of the Prince-Bishopric of Freising. These men encouraged him to advance the plan further and took responsibility for recruiting new members to the society. From then on, the order became the favorite pursuit of its founder and his associates, who dedicated all their spare time to it. In a short period, numerous members were gained across Swabia, Franconia, and Bavaria. Among these were Bavarian Court Counselor Zwackh and Bavarian Audit Council Member Berger.

Since it was not yet possible to provide official writings to the members, they were recommended certain books and instructed to produce summaries of them. They were also tasked with writing essays on particular subjects. As the order expanded, the need for internal texts grew, leading Weishaupt to draft a general constitution for the order. It was believed that transmitting knowledge, guidelines, and teachings through ceremonies and degrees would make them more appealing; thus, the collected material was arranged into stages. Some elements of Masonic rituals were borrowed, although Weishaupt himself was not particularly fond of them. Therefore, he took it upon himself to develop new ceremonies. At the time, he was studying the Zend-Avesta (the sacred texts of the Zoroastrians) and entertained the idea of shaping the new system in a manner resembling Parsi rituals.

Around the same period, the society adopted the name “Order of Minerva.” The symbolic concepts derived from this name—“light,” “eyes,” “blindness”—were explained in the initiation ceremonies with different kinds of lamps, as well as in the order’s symbols and coat of arms. Dissatisfied with the rapid growth of membership and the quality of recruits, Weishaupt introduced special rules for anyone wishing to bring in new members. To observe, monitor, and train them, standardized forms for monthly reports and daily records (Diarien) were provided. In addition, they received “Instructions” (Instructionen), “Suggestions” (Insinuationen), “Special Notices” (Partikularien), and “Statutes” (Statuten).

They believed that they could overcome their challenges by bringing in more people and enlisting their help. Accordingly, Canon Hertel, Professor Bader, and Baron Bassus of Graubünden—an old schoolmate of Hofrat W.—were fully informed of matters concerning the order. In Eichstätt, the same was done with Government Counselor Freiherr von Schreckenstein and Archbishop Count Kobenzin. By then, the order had taken on an entirely different appearance. It became evident that many members had been given an exaggerated impression of the society; their ideas and expectations had grown to such an extent that they could never be fulfilled.

The order was now drifting away from Weishaupt’s original vision. Everyone pursued different goals, each shaped by the personal ideas of their superiors. Sometimes arbitrary, unnecessary, and even ridiculous instructions were received under the guise of “order rules.” As a result, Weishaupt could no longer recognize his own initial plan. This situation led to the formation of a governing body composed of the founders and higher-degree members, known as the “Areopagites.”

Professor Bader took on the task of revising the altered and mandatory order texts. From then on, any writings had to be approved by Weishaupt to be valid. Only those texts written in Weishaupt’s ciphered numbers continued to be used. After this, no one could be admitted to the Areopagus without the approval of all its members. The changes within the system increased the internal conflicts among groups. In order to preserve the founding purpose, Weishaupt had to write strong defenses in his letters, repeatedly encouraging his companions. Through persuasion and many compromises, they managed to reach a new resolution. This decision became the first cornerstone of the Illuminati Order. It was at this time that the second degree, the “Lesser Illuminatus” (der kleine Illuminat), was introduced. Thus, the first phase of the order’s foundation came to an end—this period had begun in 1775 and concluded in 1779.


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